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GNDU Question Paper-2023

BA 3

Semester

HOME SCIENCE

[Clothing Textiles (Part-I)]

Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 50

Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The

Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION-A

1. Explain the functions of different parts of sewing machine with the help of a well

labelled diagram.

2. Classify the various equipment and supplies used in clothing construction. Explain the

functions of French curve, tracing wheel and seam ripper.

SECTION-B

3. Discuss the important points to be considered while taking body measurements. List

down the important body measurements required for clothing construction.

4.(a) What is draping? Discuss its advantages and disadvantages.

(b) Discuss the different points to be considered while drafting.

SECTION-C

5. (a) Classify textile fibers on the basis of their source with the help of a flow chart

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(b) What are staple and filament fibers? Explain.

6. What are protein fibers? Explain the process of manufacture of any one protein fiber.

SECTION-D

7. Discuss the points which should be kept in mind while dyeing fabrics at home. Explain

the process of household dyeing.

8. Explain the different methods of machine printing.

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GNDU Answer Paper-2023

BA 3

Semester

HOME SCIENCE

[Clothing Textiles (Part-I)]

Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 50

Note: Attempt Five questions in all, selecting at least One question from each section. The

Fifth question may be attempted from any section. All questions carry equal marks.

SECTION-A

1. Explain the functions of different parts of sewing machine with the help of a well

labelled diagram.

Ans: A sewing machine is a key tool in textile creation, and understanding its different parts

and their functions is crucial for efficient use. Below is a simplified explanation of the

essential components of a sewing machine and their roles, supported by a labeled diagram:

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1. Needle

The needle is the most important part of the machine that stitches fabric together. It pierces

through the fabric, allowing the thread to create stitches.

2. Needle Bar

This bar holds the needle in place and moves up and down to enable the needle to sew. It is

responsible for the motion that lets the needle penetrate the fabric.

3. Presser Foot

The presser foot holds the fabric in place as it is being sewn, pressing it flat so the needle

can move through it smoothly. There are different types of presser feet for different kinds of

stitches and fabrics.

4. Feed Dogs

Feed dogs are small teeth-like parts beneath the needle plate that move fabric forward as it

is sewn. They play a crucial role in keeping the fabric aligned as the machine stitches.

5. Bobbin and Bobbin Case

The bobbin holds the lower thread. Together with the upper thread, it forms stitches by

locking with the upper thread. The bobbin case holds the bobbin and helps to control the

tension of the lower thread.

6. Handwheel

The handwheel manually raises and lowers the needle. It allows you to start or stop sewing

at precise points and gives you control over the fabric.

7. Thread Take-Up Lever

The take-up lever pulls the thread from the spool and feeds it through the machine. It

moves up and down with the needle, helping the upper thread form stitches with the lower

thread.

8. Spool Pin

The spool pin holds the thread spool in place. It allows the thread to unwind smoothly as

the machine stitches.

9. Bobbin Winder

This component winds the thread onto the bobbin, which is essential for preparing the

lower thread for sewing.

10. Tension Disc

The tension disc controls how tightly the thread is pulled as it moves through the machine.

Proper tension ensures balanced stitches; too much tension can break the thread, while too

little can cause loose stitches.

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11. Throat Plate

The throat plate, also called the needle plate, is the flat surface under the needle. It has a

hole for the needle to pass through and allows for precise stitching while protecting the

machine's inner parts.

12. Slide Plate

This is the small cover that provides access to the bobbin area. Sliding this plate allows you

to insert or remove the bobbin.

13. Face Plate

The face plate covers the machine's inner mechanisms and provides access for

maintenance. It protects gears and other moving parts from dust and damage.

14. Foot Pedal

The foot pedal controls the machine’s speed, allowing you to sew faster or slower

depending on how much pressure you apply.

15. Back Stitch Lever

This lever allows the machine to sew in reverse. It's useful for reinforcing stitches, especially

at the beginning and end of a seam.

16. Thread Guide

The thread guide directs the thread from the spool to the needle. It ensures the thread is

positioned correctly for sewing.

17. Shuttle Hook

The shuttle hook helps catch the upper thread and loops it around the bobbin thread to

create a lockstitch, ensuring the fabric pieces are securely stitched together.

Conclusion

Each part of a sewing machine plays a critical role in producing efficient and accurate

stitches. Mastering how these parts work together allows for precise stitching and

contributes to the machine's overall performance

This explanation, while simplified, offers insight into the mechanics of a sewing machine

that will help you get started on understanding its operation.

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2. Classify the various equipment and supplies used in clothing construction. Explain the

functions of French curve, tracing wheel and seam ripper.

Ans: In clothing construction, various equipment and supplies play crucial roles in making

precise and well-finished garments. These tools include cutting tools, measuring devices,

and other essential items that aid in the sewing process. Below is a detailed classification of

some of the key equipment used in clothing construction, with a focus on three specific

tools: the French curve, tracing wheel, and seam ripper.

Classification of Equipment and Supplies in Clothing Construction

1. Measuring Tools:

o Tape Measure: Flexible and essential for measuring fabric, body dimensions,

and seam allowances.

o Ruler: A straight ruler helps in marking straight lines and measuring shorter

sections of fabric.

o Seam Gauge: A small tool used to measure hems, pleats, and spaces between

buttons accurately.

2. Cutting Tools:

o Scissors: Fabric scissors are used exclusively for cutting fabric, while smaller

snips or shears are used for threads.

o Rotary Cutter: This tool has a round blade and is ideal for cutting long,

straight pieces of fabric quickly and cleanly.

o Pinking Shears: These are used to cut fabric edges in a zigzag pattern to

prevent fraying.

3. Marking Tools:

o Tailor’s Chalk: A simple tool used to mark fabric for cutting or sewing lines.

o Marking Pencils or Pens: Specially designed for fabric, these pens or pencils

leave a temporary mark on the material that can be removed or washed out

after sewing.

4. Pinning Tools:

o Pins and Pincushions: Pins are used to hold fabric layers together, and

pincushions keep them handy and organized.

o Clips: Sometimes, clips are used instead of pins to hold fabric layers together,

especially for thicker materials.

5. Sewing Machines and Accessories:

o Sewing Machine: The essential machine used to stitch fabric pieces together.

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o Sewing Machine Needles: Different types of needles are used depending on

the fabric (e.g., ballpoint needles for knits).

o Bobbins: These are small spools that hold thread used on the underside of

the fabric while sewing.

6. Pressing Tools:

o Iron and Ironing Board: Pressing seams and fabric during construction is

critical to get a clean, professional finish.

o Tailor’s Ham: A padded tool used for pressing curved seams, like those found

in sleeves.

Specific Tools and Their Functions

1. French Curve: The French curve is a tool primarily used for drafting and altering

sewing patterns. It helps create smooth, curved lines that are essential in garment

design, especially for shaping armholes, necklines, and hips. Designers and

seamstresses use the French curve to ensure precision and symmetry in these

curved areas, which are challenging to draw freehand. It's especially useful when

modifying patterns to fit body shapes more accurately.

2. Tracing Wheel: A tracing wheel is used to transfer pattern markings onto fabric.

There are two types of tracing wheels:

o Serrated Tracing Wheel: This type has small teeth and is commonly used with

carbon paper to leave small dotted lines on fabric. It's especially helpful for

copying patterns onto fabric without cutting the original pattern. Serrated

wheels can also be used to mark cutting or stitching lines on multiple layers

of fabric.

o Spiked Tracing Wheel: This type leaves pin-prick holes in paper or thin fabrics.

It's often used in pattern making to create precise lines when copying or

developing new patterns. The spiked tracing wheel is ideal for making

permanent marks on paper without damaging the original pattern

3. Seam Ripper: A seam ripper is a small, pointed tool used to remove stitches. It has a

sharp hook and a long pointed end. Seam rippers are essential for fixing mistakes

during the sewing process, such as when stitches are crooked or when a garment

needs alteration. The seam ripper works by slipping its hook under a stitch, cutting it,

and then pulling the thread out without damaging the fabric. It’s also helpful when

removing basting stitches or opening up buttonholes

Conclusion

In summary, the tools used in clothing construction are vital for achieving professional and

precise results. From the French curve used for drafting patterns, to the tracing wheel for

copying them onto fabric, and the seam ripper for correcting mistakes, each tool has a

specific function that contributes to the overall success of the sewing process.

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Understanding how to use these tools effectively allows for better control over the fabric

and the final appearance of the garment.

By mastering these tools and other equipment, anyone interested in clothing construction

can improve their sewing skills and create well-made, custom-fitted garments.

SECTION-B

3. Discuss the important points to be considered while taking body measurements. List

down the important body measurements required for clothing construction.

Ans: In clothing construction, various equipment and supplies play crucial roles in making

precise and well-finished garments. These tools include cutting tools, measuring devices,

and other essential items that aid in the sewing process. Below is a detailed classification of

some of the key equipment used in clothing construction, with a focus on three specific

tools: the French curve, tracing wheel, and seam ripper.

Classification of Equipment and Supplies in Clothing Construction

1. Measuring Tools:

o Tape Measure: Flexible and essential for measuring fabric, body dimensions,

and seam allowances.

o Ruler: A straight ruler helps in marking straight lines and measuring shorter

sections of fabric.

o Seam Gauge: A small tool used to measure hems, pleats, and spaces between

buttons accurately.

2. Cutting Tools:

o Scissors: Fabric scissors are used exclusively for cutting fabric, while smaller

snips or shears are used for threads.

o Rotary Cutter: This tool has a round blade and is ideal for cutting long,

straight pieces of fabric quickly and cleanly.

o Pinking Shears: These are used to cut fabric edges in a zigzag pattern to

prevent fraying.

3. Marking Tools:

o Tailor’s Chalk: A simple tool used to mark fabric for cutting or sewing lines.

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o Marking Pencils or Pens: Specially designed for fabric, these pens or pencils

leave a temporary mark on the material that can be removed or washed out

after sewing.

4. Pinning Tools:

o Pins and Pincushions: Pins are used to hold fabric layers together, and

pincushions keep them handy and organized.

o Clips: Sometimes, clips are used instead of pins to hold fabric layers together,

especially for thicker materials.

5. Sewing Machines and Accessories:

o Sewing Machine: The essential machine used to stitch fabric pieces together.

o Sewing Machine Needles: Different types of needles are used depending on

the fabric (e.g., ballpoint needles for knits).

o Bobbins: These are small spools that hold thread used on the underside of

the fabric while sewing.

6. Pressing Tools:

o Iron and Ironing Board: Pressing seams and fabric during construction is

critical to get a clean, professional finish.

o Tailor’s Ham: A padded tool used for pressing curved seams, like those found

in sleeves.

Specific Tools and Their Functions

1. French Curve: The French curve is a tool primarily used for drafting and altering

sewing patterns. It helps create smooth, curved lines that are essential in garment

design, especially for shaping armholes, necklines, and hips. Designers and

seamstresses use the French curve to ensure precision and symmetry in these

curved areas, which are challenging to draw freehand. It's especially useful when

modifying patterns to fit body shapes more accurately.

2. Tracing Wheel: A tracing wheel is used to transfer pattern markings onto fabric.

There are two types of tracing wheels:

o Serrated Tracing Wheel: This type has small teeth and is commonly used with

carbon paper to leave small dotted lines on fabric. It's especially helpful for

copying patterns onto fabric without cutting the original pattern. Serrated

wheels can also be used to mark cutting or stitching lines on multiple layers

of fabric.

o Spiked Tracing Wheel: This type leaves pin-prick holes in paper or thin fabrics.

It's often used in pattern making to create precise lines when copying or

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developing new patterns. The spiked tracing wheel is ideal for making

permanent marks on paper without damaging the original pattern

3. Seam Ripper: A seam ripper is a small, pointed tool used to remove stitches. It has a

sharp hook and a long pointed end. Seam rippers are essential for fixing mistakes

during the sewing process, such as when stitches are crooked or when a garment

needs alteration. The seam ripper works by slipping its hook under a stitch, cutting it,

and then pulling the thread out without damaging the fabric. It’s also helpful when

removing basting stitches or opening up buttonholes

Conclusion

In summary, the tools used in clothing construction are vital for achieving professional and

precise results. From the French curve used for drafting patterns, to the tracing wheel for

copying them onto fabric, and the seam ripper for correcting mistakes, each tool has a

specific function that contributes to the overall success of the sewing process.

Understanding how to use these tools effectively allows for better control over the fabric

and the final appearance of the garment.

By mastering these tools and other equipment, anyone interested in clothing construction

can improve their sewing skills and create well-made, custom-fitted garments.

4.(a) What is draping? Discuss its advantages and disadvantages.

(b) Discuss the different points to be considered while drafting.

Ans: What is Draping?

Draping is a technique used in fashion design and garment making where fabric is pinned,

folded, or tucked directly onto a mannequin or dress form to create the structure and style

of a garment. Unlike flat pattern drafting, which involves creating patterns on paper before

cutting the fabric, draping allows designers to see how the fabric behaves and falls in real-

time. This process is often used to create custom garments, especially when working with

fabrics that have unique properties like silk, chiffon, or wool.

Draping is commonly used for creating one-of-a-kind garments, such as bridal gowns,

evening dresses, or custom clothing. It allows the designer to work directly with the fabric

and to see how it interacts with the body shape, which makes it ideal for more complex

designs, such as asymmetrical pieces or garments with a lot of volume.

Advantages of Draping

1. Visualizing the Garment: Draping allows designers to visualize the final garment

more accurately. You can see how the fabric will look on a real body, how it falls, and

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how it interacts with the form. This helps in making adjustments as needed right

away.

2. Better Fit: Draping helps achieve a more accurate and custom fit because the

garment is being shaped directly on the dress form, which can be adjusted to match

the actual body measurements of the person who will wear it.

3. Design Flexibility: Draping offers the flexibility to experiment with design details like

pleats, gathers, and tucks, which can be more challenging to visualize and execute in

flat pattern drafting.

4. Creative Process: Many designers prefer draping because it allows for more creative

freedom. Since the designer is working directly with the fabric, they can immediately

see how changes in the design will look and make adjustments on the spot.

5. Material Awareness: When draping, you can immediately see how a particular fabric

reacts. Some fabrics, like silk or velvet, have a specific drape and texture that might

not be evident on paper. By working directly with the fabric, the designer can

account for its unique characteristics.

6. Customized Designs: Since the fabric is placed on the dress form directly, draping

allows designers to make custom, one-of-a-kind pieces that are tailored to specific

body shapes and measurements. This makes it ideal for couture or high-fashion

design.

Disadvantages of Draping

1. Time-Consuming: Draping can be more time-consuming than flat pattern drafting,

especially for complex garments. Designers have to work directly with the fabric,

making adjustments on the spot, which can take a lot of time.

2. Material Wastage: Draping can lead to more fabric waste, especially when

experimenting with different designs. Mistakes can be harder to undo, and some

materials may not be reusable once they've been pinned, cut, or manipulated.

3. Requires a Dress Form: To properly drape a garment, you need a dress form, which

can be expensive. Moreover, the dress form needs to be adjustable or custom-made

to fit the specific measurements of the person the garment is being made for, adding

to the cost.

4. Not Ideal for Mass Production: While draping works well for custom, one-of-a-kind

pieces, it is not suitable for mass production. In large-scale fashion manufacturing,

patterns are needed to produce consistent garments, which can be done more easily

with flat pattern drafting.

5. Skill and Experience Required: Draping requires a high level of skill and experience.

Beginners may find it challenging to manipulate the fabric and achieve the desired

results. It can take years of practice to become proficient in this technique.

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Points to Consider While Drafting

Drafting refers to the process of creating a flat pattern for a garment using body

measurements and design specifications. It is an essential step in garment construction,

particularly for mass-produced clothing. Here are some important points to consider when

drafting a pattern:

1. Accurate Measurements: The first and most important step in drafting is taking

accurate body measurements. These measurements will serve as the foundation for

the entire garment, so it’s essential to be precise. Common measurements include

bust, waist, hip, shoulder width, sleeve length, and inseam.

2. Understanding Fabric Properties: Different fabrics behave differently. For instance,

stretchy fabrics like spandex require different drafting techniques compared to stiff

fabrics like denim. Knowing the properties of the fabric you’re working with helps

you draft a pattern that will work well with the material.

3. Ease Allowance: When drafting a pattern, it's important to add ease to allow for

movement and comfort. Ease refers to the extra space added to a garment to make

it wearable. There are two types of ease: wearing ease and design ease. Wearing

ease is necessary for basic comfort, while design ease is added for style purposes,

such as oversized garments.

4. Seam Allowance: Seam allowance is the extra fabric added around the edges of a

pattern piece to allow for stitching. Typically, seam allowances range from 0.5 cm to

1.5 cm, depending on the type of garment. It’s important to account for seam

allowance when drafting to ensure the final garment fits properly.

5. Grainline: The grainline refers to the direction in which the fabric should be cut. It’s

essential to mark the grainline on the pattern to ensure that the fabric is cut

correctly. Cutting fabric on the grain ensures that the garment will hang and drape

properly. If fabric is cut off-grain, it can cause the garment to stretch or warp.

6. Pattern Notches: Notches are small marks on the pattern that help with the

assembly of the garment. They indicate where two pieces should be joined together,

such as where a sleeve should attach to the armhole. Including notches in the

drafting process makes sewing easier and more accurate.

7. Darts and Pleats: Darts and pleats are essential for shaping a garment to fit the

body. Darts are triangular folds sewn into the fabric to shape it around curves like

the bust, waist, and hips. Pleats are folds in the fabric that provide volume and

texture. When drafting, it’s important to place darts and pleats in the correct

locations to achieve the desired fit and design.

8. Balance Marks: These are markings on the pattern that indicate how different parts

of the garment should align when sewn together. For example, balance marks are

often used in sleeves to ensure that the front and back armholes match up perfectly

with the sleeve.

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9. Hem Allowance: Just like seam allowance, hem allowance is the extra fabric added

to the bottom edge of a garment to allow for hemming. The amount of hem

allowance varies depending on the type of garment. For example, skirts and dresses

typically require more hem allowance than pants.

10. Consideration for Design Elements: If your garment includes design elements such

as pockets, collars, or button plackets, you need to account for them in the drafting

process. For example, you’ll need to draft separate pattern pieces for collars or

create guidelines for pocket placement.

11. Adjusting for Fit: After drafting the initial pattern, it’s important to make

adjustments for fit. This can involve making mockups or “muslins” to test the fit of

the garment before cutting the final fabric. Common adjustments include

lengthening or shortening the garment, adjusting the shoulder slope, or taking in the

waistline.

12. Symmetry: When drafting a pattern, it’s important to ensure symmetry, especially

for garments like skirts, dresses, and jackets. Ensuring that both sides of the garment

are symmetrical will make the garment look more professional and well-made.

13. Use of Templates: Some designers use templates or basic block patterns (also known

as slopers) that are already drafted to standard sizes. These templates can be

adjusted and modified according to the specific design requirements, saving time in

the drafting process.

Conclusion

Both draping and drafting are essential techniques in fashion design, each with its own

advantages and disadvantages. Draping offers greater creative freedom and the ability to

work directly with fabric, making it ideal for custom, one-of-a-kind pieces. However, it can

be time-consuming and less suitable for mass production. Drafting, on the other hand, is a

more precise method that allows for consistent garment production, but it requires

accurate measurements and detailed planning. By understanding the strengths and

limitations of both techniques, designers can choose the right approach for each project.

Whether you’re working on a custom couture gown or mass-producing garments for retail,

understanding the basics of draping and drafting is essential for any fashion designer.

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SECTION-C

5. (a) Classify textile fibers on the basis of their source with the help of a flow chart

(b) What are staple and filament fibers? Explain.

Ans: Classification of Textile Fibers and Explanation of Staple and Filament Fibers

1. Classification of Textile Fibers Based on Source

Textile fibers are the basic materials used to create fabrics. These fibers can be classified

based on their source into two broad categories: Natural Fibers and Man-Made Fibers. Each

category has further sub-divisions based on the material's origin and how they are

produced.

A. Natural Fibers

These are fibers that are obtained directly from natural sources. They are further classified

into:

i. Plant-Based Fibers

These fibers are derived from plants and are mainly composed of cellulose. Some common

plant-based fibers include:

• Cotton: The most widely used natural fiber, known for its softness and comfort.

• Flax (Linen): Used to make linen, it is strong, durable, and has a natural shine.

• Jute: Often used for making burlap and ropes, jute is coarse and durable.

• Hemp: Grown for industrial purposes, hemp is used to create strong textiles.

ii. Animal-Based Fibers

These fibers come from animals and are primarily composed of proteins such as keratin or

fibroin. Examples include:

• Wool: Comes from sheep, used in warm clothing like sweaters and blankets.

• Silk: Produced by silkworms, it is known for its smooth texture and natural sheen.

• Cashmere and Mohair: Obtained from goats, these fibers are luxurious, soft, and

warm.

iii. Mineral-Based Fibers

• Asbestos: Although now largely avoided due to health risks, asbestos was once used

for its fire-resistant properties.

B. Man-Made Fibers

Man-made fibers are created through chemical processes, and they can be categorized into:

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i. Regenerated Fibers

These fibers are made from natural raw materials (such as wood pulp) that are chemically

processed to create fibers. Examples include:

• Rayon: Made from cellulose, it mimics the properties of natural fibers like cotton and

silk.

• Acetate: A fiber derived from cellulose that is often used in clothing like linings and

dresses.

ii. Synthetic Fibers

Synthetic fibers are made from petrochemicals and other compounds. Some common

synthetic fibers are:

• Polyester: Highly durable and resistant to shrinking and stretching.

• Nylon: Known for its strength, often used in hosiery and activewear.

• Acrylic: Used as a substitute for wool in sweaters and blankets.

• Spandex: Famous for its elasticity, often used in sportswear and undergarments.

2. Staple and Filament Fibers

Textile fibers are also classified based on their length as Staple Fibers and Filament Fibers.

A. Staple Fibers

Staple fibers are short in length, usually ranging from 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 7.5 cm), although

the exact length depends on the fiber type. Most natural fibers, except silk, are staple fibers.

For example, cotton, wool, and jute are staple fibers. Staple fibers must be spun together to

form a continuous thread, which is then woven or knitted into fabric. Staple fibers are

measured in inches or centimeters.

Examples:

• Cotton: Cotton fibers are short (around 1-2 inches) and need to be spun into yarn to

create fabric.

• Wool: Wool fibers are typically shorter than synthetic fibers and have a natural

crimp, making them ideal for warm, insulating fabrics.

B. Filament Fibers

Filament fibers are continuous, long fibers that can be several kilometers long. These fibers

can be either natural, like silk, or synthetic, like polyester or nylon. Filament fibers do not

require spinning as staple fibers do because they are already continuous threads. They are

usually used to create smooth, shiny fabrics and are measured in yards or meters.

Examples:

• Silk: The only natural filament fiber, silk can be reeled in long strands directly from

silkworm cocoons.

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• Synthetic fibers: Fibers like polyester and nylon are extruded from chemical solutions

in long filaments and are often used in textiles for their strength and smoothness.

Filament fibers can also be cut into staple lengths for particular uses. For example, synthetic

fibers like polyester can be cut to form staple fibers, which are then spun into yarns.

3. Comparing Staple and Filament Fibers

Staple fibers and filament fibers have distinct properties that influence the type of fabrics

they produce:

• Staple fibers tend to produce fabrics with a more textured, matte appearance. They

are generally less smooth compared to fabrics made from filament fibers. For

example, cotton fabrics have a softer feel compared to the smoothness of polyester.

• Filament fibers produce fabrics that are smooth and lustrous. Silk and synthetic

fibers like nylon create a glossy finish and are often used in formal wear and linings.

Filament fibers are also more resistant to wrinkles and shrinkage.

• Durability: Filament fibers, especially synthetic ones like nylon and polyester, tend to

be more durable than staple fibers. Wool or cotton fabrics may wear out or shrink

over time, while filament-based fabrics retain their structure better.

• Comfort: Fabrics made from staple fibers, such as cotton or wool, are generally

considered more breathable and comfortable for everyday wear, while filament

fibers are often used for more specialized applications, such as activewear or

evening wear.

Conclusion

In summary, textile fibers can be classified based on their source into natural and man-made

fibers, each with its own unique properties. These fibers can also be categorized based on

their length as either staple or filament fibers, which greatly influences the texture,

durability, and application of the resulting fabrics. Understanding the classification and

properties of textile fibers is crucial for choosing the right material for specific uses in the

textile industry. By understanding the difference between staple and filament fibers,

manufacturers and consumers can make informed choices regarding the texture, durability,

and end-use of fabrics

6. What are protein fibers? Explain the process of manufacture of any one protein fiber.

Ans: Protein Fibers in Textiles

Protein fibers are a type of natural fibers that are derived from animals. They are called

protein fibers because their molecular structure is made up of proteins. The most common

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protein fibers used in textiles include wool, silk, and hair fibers from animals like sheep,

goats, and rabbits. These fibers have been used for thousands of years to make various

types of clothing and textiles due to their unique properties like softness, warmth, and

strength.

In simple terms, protein fibers come from animals. Just like humans have hair, animals have

fibers in their fur or cocoon, which are harvested and processed to make fabric. These fibers

are then spun into yarn and woven into cloth.

Types of Protein Fibers

Protein fibers mainly come from two sources:

1. Animal Hair Fibers: This includes wool from sheep, cashmere from goats, and alpaca

from alpacas. These fibers are usually curly or wavy and provide warmth. Wool is

one of the most widely used animal hair fibers because of its insulation properties.

2. Secretion-based Fibers: These fibers come from animal secretions, like silk, which is

produced by silkworms. Silk is a luxurious and smooth fiber, known for its shine and

softness.

Properties of Protein Fibers

Protein fibers have certain characteristics that make them ideal for different types of

clothing and fabrics:

1. Softness: Most protein fibers are soft and comfortable against the skin, making them

ideal for clothing like sweaters, scarves, and other garments that need to be worn

for long periods.

2. Elasticity: Protein fibers, especially wool, are elastic and can stretch to some extent.

This gives garments made from wool the ability to return to their original shape after

being stretched, which is why wool sweaters don’t lose their shape easily.

3. Moisture Absorption: Protein fibers can absorb moisture without feeling wet. This

makes them good at keeping the skin dry and warm in cold conditions. Wool, for

example, can absorb up to 30% of its weight in moisture while still feeling dry.

4. Heat Retention: Because protein fibers trap air in their structure, they are excellent

insulators. This is why wool and cashmere are often used to make winter clothing.

5. Biodegradability: Protein fibers are natural and biodegradable. When discarded,

they break down naturally over time, making them more environmentally friendly

than synthetic fibers.

Manufacture of Protein Fibers: Wool Production

Now, let's take wool as an example of a protein fiber. The process of manufacturing wool

from sheep is a complex one, involving several steps, from shearing the sheep to weaving

the final wool fabric.

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Step 1: Sheep Shearing

The first step in wool production is shearing, which means cutting off the fleece (the woolly

coat) of the sheep. This is usually done once a year, in the spring or early summer. Sheep

shearing doesn’t hurt the animal and is an important part of their care because the wool

coat can become too heavy and hot in warmer months.

Step 2: Sorting and Grading the Wool

After the wool is sheared, it is sorted and graded. Wool from different parts of the sheep's

body has different qualities. For example, wool from the shoulders and sides is usually of

higher quality, while wool from the legs and tail area is of lower quality. The fleece is divided

into categories based on the fiber’s length, fineness, and color.

Step 3: Scouring (Cleaning the Wool)

Once the wool is sorted, it needs to be cleaned. This process is called scouring. Wool is

greasy when it comes off the sheep, mainly due to a substance called lanolin, which is a

natural oil produced by the sheep's skin. The wool is washed in a series of baths with water

and detergent to remove the dirt, grease, and sweat. Lanolin is often extracted from the

wool and used in cosmetics and ointments.

Step 4: Carding

After the wool is cleaned, it needs to be straightened out so the fibers can be spun into

yarn. This process is called carding. In carding, the wool fibers are passed through a series of

wire-toothed rollers that separate and align the fibers into a web. This web is then divided

into thin strands called slivers, which are ready for spinning.

Step 5: Spinning the Wool

In the spinning process, the slivers are twisted together to make yarn. Spinning can be done

by hand or with machines. The spinning process is important because the tighter the twist,

the stronger the yarn will be. Wool yarn can be spun in different thicknesses and textures

depending on its intended use. For example, tightly spun wool is used for suits and coats,

while loosely spun wool is used for soft sweaters and scarves.

Step 6: Dyeing the Wool

After the wool is spun into yarn, it can be dyed into different colors. Dyeing can be done at

various stages of the process. Wool can be dyed as raw fleece before spinning, as yarn after

spinning, or even as a finished fabric. The dyeing process uses special chemicals to bond the

color to the wool fibers. Wool takes dye very well because of its protein structure, which

allows the dye to penetrate deeply into the fibers.

Step 7: Weaving or Knitting

Once the wool yarn is dyed, it can be woven or knitted into fabric. In weaving, the yarn is

passed over and under other threads to create fabric. In knitting, the yarn is looped together

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to form a stretchy fabric. Wool can be used to make a wide variety of fabrics, including

tweeds, flannels, and worsted fabrics.

Step 8: Finishing the Fabric

After weaving or knitting, the wool fabric goes through a finishing process. This can include

washing, stretching, and sometimes even brushing the fabric to make it softer. Wool fabric

can also be treated to make it resistant to shrinking or to make it waterproof. The final wool

fabric is then ready to be cut and sewn into garments, blankets, or other textile products.

Advantages of Wool as a Protein Fiber

1. Warmth: Wool is excellent at keeping the body warm, which makes it ideal for

winter clothing.

2. Breathability: Wool can absorb moisture without feeling wet, which makes it

comfortable to wear even in damp conditions.

3. Durability: Wool is a strong fiber and can last for many years if cared for properly.

4. Biodegradable: Wool is an eco-friendly option because it is a natural fiber that

breaks down over time.

Disadvantages of Wool

1. Cost: Wool can be expensive compared to synthetic fibers like polyester or nylon.

2. Care: Wool garments often require special care, such as hand washing or dry

cleaning, because they can shrink or become misshapen in hot water or a dryer.

3. Allergies: Some people are allergic to lanolin, the natural oil found in wool, which can

cause skin irritation.

Silk: Another Protein Fiber

Silk is another well-known protein fiber, but it is different from wool in many ways. Silk is

produced by silkworms, which spin cocoons made of a long, continuous thread of protein.

This thread is harvested and used to make silk fabric, known for its smooth texture and

shiny appearance.

How Silk is Made:

1. Silkworm Cultivation (Sericulture): Silkworms are raised on a diet of mulberry

leaves.

2. Harvesting the Cocoons: When the silkworms form cocoons, these are collected and

boiled to kill the pupa inside.

3. Reeling the Silk: The long fibers from the cocoon are carefully unwound and spun

into silk threads.

4. Weaving the Silk: The threads are woven into fabric, which can be dyed and used for

luxurious clothing and textiles.

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Silk is prized for its softness, strength, and natural shine, making it one of the most luxurious

fabrics in the world. It’s used in high-end fashion, lingerie, ties, and even bedding.

Conclusion

Protein fibers like wool and silk play an essential role in the textile industry due to their

unique properties such as warmth, softness, and strength. Wool, with its elasticity, moisture

absorption, and insulation properties, is ideal for winter clothing, while silk's luxurious feel

and shine make it perfect for elegant garments. The processes of manufacturing these

fibers, although different, highlight the incredible versatility of protein fibers in the world of

textiles.

SECTION-D

7. Discuss the points which should be kept in mind while dyeing fabrics at home. Explain

the process of household dyeing.

Ans: Important Points to Keep in Mind

1. Fabric Type: Different fabrics absorb dye in various ways. Natural fibers such as

cotton, linen, silk, and wool are ideal because they take dye better than synthetic

fabrics like polyester or acrylic. If you're working with synthetic fibers, choose a dye

specifically formulated for synthetics

2. Pre-wash the Fabric: Before dyeing, always wash the fabric to remove any dirt, oils,

or factory finishes that may interfere with dye absorption

3. Workstation Preparation: Cover your workspace with a drop cloth to protect

surfaces from spills. Use gloves, and make sure you have all the necessary tools

ready, such as a bucket for dyeing, stirring tools, and heat sources

4. Dye Selection: Household dyes can be natural or chemical. Natural dyes are derived

from plants or vegetables and are eco-friendly, while chemical dyes like fiber-

reactive dyes offer versatility and strong color saturation

5. Temperature Control: Different dyes and fabrics require specific temperatures for

optimal results. For example, raising the temperature can increase dye absorption,

but too much heat can damage certain fibers

6. Color Expectation: Be mindful that the color of your fabric may vary based on its

original shade. For example, a white fabric may take on a different tone than an off-

white one. Additionally, trim and stitching, if made of a different material, may

absorb the dye differently

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7. Stain Consideration: Dyeing won't necessarily cover stains, so make sure to treat any

spots beforehand if you want a uniform result

Household Dyeing Process

1. Preparing the Dye Bath: Fill a large container with hot water (for cotton and linen)

or warm water (for wool and silk). Add the dye according to the fabric type. If using

chemical dyes, add salt for cotton/linen or vinegar for wool/silk to help the fabric

take the dye better

2. Immersion Dyeing: The simplest and most common method is immersion dyeing.

Submerge the fabric in the dye bath, stirring regularly to ensure even coverage. The

longer you leave the fabric in the dye, the darker the color will be. Check the fabric

periodically until the desired shade is achieved

3. Creative Techniques: Besides immersion, you can try other techniques like painting

the dye onto the fabric using brushes for a custom design or using spray bottles for a

gradient effect. These techniques give you creative control over the final look

4. Post-Dye Rinsing: Once the fabric has reached the desired color, rinse it in cool

water until the water runs clear. This removes excess dye and prevents future color

bleeding

5. Heat Setting: To ensure that the dye sets and lasts, heat-set the fabric by either

ironing it on high heat or using a dryer on high for about 30 minutes. Heat setting

helps lock in the color

6. Washing and Maintenance: Wash the dyed fabric in cold water with mild detergent

to preserve its color. Avoid using bleach or harsh chemicals, and air dry or tumble

dry on low heat

Post-Dyeing Care

Taking proper care of your dyed fabric ensures long-lasting color. Always wash dyed fabrics

separately for the first few washes to prevent color transfer. Also, turning the fabric inside

out before washing can help maintain the vibrancy of the colors

Troubleshooting Common Issues

• Uneven Color: If your fabric ends up with uneven color, you can re-dye it or use a

color remover to start over.

• Fading: If the dye fades, consider using a stronger dye solution or a chemical fixative

to help the color hold better.

• Color Bleeding: Proper rinsing and the use of color catchers in the washing machine

can help reduce bleeding

In conclusion, dyeing fabric at home is a fun and creative process, but it requires attention

to detail and proper preparation. By choosing the right materials, controlling temperature,

and following proper dyeing techniques, you can achieve beautiful and lasting results

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8. Explain the different methods of machine printing.

Ans: Machine printing in textiles involves various methods that allow for the mass

production of printed fabrics. These methods use advanced technology to achieve high

precision, faster output, and vibrant designs. Below are the main types of machine printing

techniques:

1. Roller Printing

Roller printing is one of the most commonly used methods in textile manufacturing. In this

process, copper rollers engraved with a design are used to transfer ink or dye onto the

fabric. The fabric passes through the rollers, and the design is printed directly on the

material. Roller printing can produce multiple colors and intricate designs in a short amount

of time. This method is ideal for large-scale fabric printing, but it requires skilled labor and

precise machine calibration. The process is efficient but expensive due to the costs of

engraving rollers

Advantages:

• High-speed production.

• Ability to print intricate designs with fine details.

• Economical for long production runs.

Disadvantages:

• High setup cost due to the need for custom-engraved rollers.

• Limited flexibility for small runs or custom prints.

2. Screen Printing

Screen printing is one of the most versatile and widely used methods. It can be done

manually or by machines. The process involves forcing ink through a mesh screen onto the

fabric. Each color in the design requires a separate screen. There are two major types of

screen printing machines: flatbed and rotary.

• Flatbed screen printing is suitable for smaller, more detailed designs, often used in

making garments, home textiles, and accessories.

• Rotary screen printing, on the other hand, is used for continuous roll printing of

fabrics, making it suitable for larger batches

Advantages:

• Can print on a wide variety of fabrics and surfaces.

• Produces vibrant, durable colors.

• Economical for bulk orders.

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Disadvantages:

• Time-consuming for multicolor designs as each color requires a separate screen.

• Less efficient for small orders due to higher setup time.

3. Heat Transfer Printing

This method involves transferring a design from a special paper onto fabric using heat and

pressure. Heat transfer printing is commonly used for printing on t-shirts and other ready-

made garments. It is ideal for smaller production runs and custom designs. Designs are

printed onto a special heat-transfer paper and then transferred to the fabric using a heat

press

Advantages:

• Suitable for small quantities and custom designs.

• Can achieve vibrant, detailed images, including photographic prints.

Disadvantages:

• May not be as durable as other methods.

• Not ideal for large-scale production due to slow process.

4. Digital Printing

Digital fabric printing is a relatively modern method that uses inkjet technology to print

directly onto the fabric. This process does not require screens or rollers, making it highly

flexible and suitable for small or custom orders. Digital printing allows for complex, multi-

color designs to be printed in a single pass, and it can print images or photographs directly

onto textiles

Advantages:

• High level of detail and color accuracy.

• Suitable for small runs, custom designs, and prototypes.

• Environmentally friendly with less water usage and waste.

Disadvantages:

• Slower production speeds compared to roller printing.

• Higher cost per unit for large production runs.

5. Pigment Printing

Pigment printing is a specialized form of digital printing that uses pigment-based inks. This

method is known for its vibrant colors and durability. The pigment inks adhere to the

surface of the fabric, making it a surface-level printing process. It’s often used for lighter

fabrics like cotton and is eco-friendly because it requires less water

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Advantages:

• Good for producing vibrant, long-lasting colors.

• Suitable for various types of fabrics, especially cotton.

• Eco-friendly, using less water and energy.

Disadvantages:

• Not ideal for dark fabrics or deep blacks.

• Can be less durable than other methods if not treated properly.

6. Sublimation Printing

Sublimation printing is a digital printing method used primarily for polyester fabrics. In this

process, the ink is transformed into a gas without passing through a liquid state, which then

bonds with the fabric fibers. Sublimation printing allows for vibrant colors and is particularly

effective on sportswear and other polyester-based textiles

Advantages:

• Durable prints that don’t fade or crack.

• Suitable for high-quality prints on polyester.

• Can print full-color designs.

Disadvantages:

• Limited to synthetic fabrics like polyester.

• Expensive setup costs for specialized machinery.

7. Block Printing

While not as widely used in modern mass production, block printing is still a popular

method for artistic or limited-edition designs. In this method, carved wooden blocks are

dipped in ink and pressed onto the fabric by hand. Block printing is labor-intensive and time-

consuming but produces unique and artistic designs

Advantages:

• Artistic and handmade appeal.

• Suitable for eco-friendly, small-scale production.

Disadvantages:

• Time-consuming and labor-intensive.

• Limited production capacity.

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Conclusion

Each method of machine printing has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of

method depends on factors such as the type of fabric, the design complexity, the scale of

production, and the cost. For large-scale production, roller printing and rotary screen

printing are highly efficient, while digital and heat transfer printing are better suited for

custom designs and small batches. The flexibility and advancement in these methods allow

for a wide range of textile applications, from fashion and home décor to industrial uses.

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